Johan Reinhard

Archaeologist, anthropologist, and discoverer of the Capacocha mummies. Subject matter consultant for the project and participant in field research.

About Me

Dr Johan Reinhard Dr. Johan Reinhard was an Explorer-in-Residence at the National Geographic Society (NGS) during 1999-2013 and 1997. He is currently (2021) affiliated as an Explorer with NGS, as a Research Professor at Future Generations University, and as a Senior Research Fellow at The Mountain Institute (Peru). He has previously been a Research Associate of the Field Museum of Natural History (Chicago), a Research Associate of the National Institute of Archaeology (La Paz, Bolivia), a Visiting Professor at Catholic University (Salta, Argentina), an Honorary Professor of Catholic University (Arequipa, Peru), a Research Scientist of the Anthropology Department of the University of Wisconsin (Madison), and a Director of Peace Corps Training Projects for Nepal.

Born in Illinois, he began his undergraduate studies in anthropology at the University of Arizona, before going on to receive his Ph.D. in Anthropology from the University of Vienna, Austria (1974). Much of his research has focused on the sacred beliefs and cultural practices of mountain peoples, especially in the Andes and the Himalayas, and on preserving the cultural patrimony of indigenous peoples.

Since 1980 Dr. Reinhard has conducted anthropological field research primarily in Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, and Ecuador. His investigations have led him to present theories from the perspective of sacred landscape to better understand pre-Hispanic ceremonial sites on mountain summits up to 6,739 m, the Nazca Lines (giant desert drawings), and the ancient ceremonial centers of Machu Picchu, Chavín de Huantar, and Tiahuanaco. During 1989-92 he directed the first Andean underwater archaeological research project in Lake Titicaca (3,812 m). In 1982-83 he conducted underwater archaeological investigations in two crater lakes, one on the summit of Licancabur at 5,850 m and the other at 5,800 m near the summit of Paniri (5,946 m).

While making over 200 ascents over 5,200 m in the Andes, he led expeditions resulting in the discovery of more than 60 high-altitude Inca ritual sites. He directed teams that recovered four Inca human sacrifices on Ampato (6,312 m). His expeditions in the Andes during 1996-1999 led to the discovery of fourteen more Inca human sacrifices on five mountains above 5,500 m (18,044 ft), including three perfectly preserved mummies at 6,739 m on Llullaillaco, the world’s highest archaeological site.

He has lived more than ten years in the Himalayas, conducting anthropological research primarily in Nepal, but also in Tibet, Bhutan, Sikkim, and the Garhwal Himalaya. His studies included: Himalayan shamanism; the role of sacred mountains in Tibetan Buddhism and Hinduism; the sacred "hidden lands" of Tibetan Buddhism (seven of which he has explored); and culture change from nomadic hunting-gathering to settled agriculture among the Raji. In the late 1960s he was the first to study two of the world's last nomadic hunting and gathering tribes, the Raute and the Kusunda (speakers of one of the world's rarest languages), and to identify a Dravidian language (Dhangar) in Nepal. While in Nepal, he also directed Peace Corps Training Projects. Elsewhere in Asia he has conducted ethnographic research on Muslim fishermen in the Maldive Islands (Indian Ocean) (1977) and studied traditional religious practices in Mongolia (2012), Bali (Indonesia) (2007), Israel (2012), and Turkey (2015).

While living in Europe, Dr. Reinhard participated in Austria's first underwater archaeological project (a Neolithic site at Mondsee) (1972). He was also a member of teams that undertook nautical archaeological research of Roman shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea off southern Italy (1965 and 1967) and of an Iron Age Villanovan village (1965) in an Italian lake (Bolsena Lake). He has investigated sacred mountains and traditional religion in Greece (2002). In Mexico he was a member of underwater archaeological investigations (2007, 2010) of sacred lakes of the Aztecs at 4,216 m on Mt. Toluca. In 2009 he participated on underwater archaeological research in Ecuador in the mountain lake of Culebrillas (3,915 m) and off the coast of Bahia de Caráquez. Research on traditional religious practices was carried out in Venezuela (2012) and Guatemala (2014). Underwater archaeological sites in Lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan were investigated in 2010.

Dr. Reinhard has over eighty publications, including six books and is a member of several organizations, including the American Anthropological Association, the American Alpine Club, the Explorers Club, the Institute of Andean Studies, the Institute of Nautical Archaeology, the Royal Geographical Society, the Society for American Archaeology, and the European Association of Archaeologists. Three museums have been built to exhibit the archeological finds made during his expeditions: the Museum of High Mountain Sanctuaries in Arequipa, Peru; the Museum of High Mountain Archaeology in Salta, Argentina; and a site museum in the village of Challapampa, Island of the Sun, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia.

He has received numerous awards, including the Rolex Award in 1987 for Andean research, the Puma de Oro (1992) — the highest archaeological honor in Bolivia, the Gold Medal of the city of Arequipa (1996), the “Outstanding Youth Book” award for Discovering the Inca Ice Maiden (1998), recognition by Outside magazine as one of the “25 Most Extraordinary Travelers, Athletes, and Explorers” (2000), the title of “Planet Hero” from Ford (2001), the Explorers Medal from the Explorers Club in New York (2002), the key to the city of Bahia de Caráquez (2009), and the Sir Edmund Hillary Mountain Legacy Medal (2017) for his contribution to the preservation of Himalayan and Andean cultures through archaeological discoveries and scientific work.

Publications

Books

Inca Rituals and Sacred Mountains: A Study of the World’s Highest Archaeological Sites (with Constanza Ceruti), University of California. Los Angeles (2010) ISBN 978-1931745765

Machu Picchu: Exploring an Ancient Sacred Center, University of California, Los Angeles (2007) ISBN 978-1931745444

The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. (2005) ISBN 978-1-4262-0176-9

Machu Picchu: The Sacred Center, Instituto Machu Picchu, Lima (2002) ISBN 9972966402

Investigaciones arqueológicas en el Volcán Llullaillaco: Complejo ceremonial incaico de alta montaña (with Constanza Ceruti), Universidad Católica, Salta (2000) ISBN 950-623-005-6

Discovering the Inca Ice Maiden. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. (1998) ISBN 0-7922-7142-4

Exploraciones Arqueológicas Subacuáticas en el Lago Titikaka, (with Carlos Ponce et al.) Editorial La Palabra, La Paz (1992)

The Nazca Lines: A New Perspective on their Origin and Meaning. Editorial Los Pinos, Lima (1988, 4th ed.) ISBN 84-89291-17-9

Las Líneas de Nazca: Un Nuevo Enfoque sobre su Origen y Significado, Editorial Los Pinos, Lima (1987) ISBN 84-89291-18-7

Nepal Cross-Cultural Trainers Manual (with Underwood and Shrestha), New Educational Research Associates, Kathmandu (1978)

Articles

Ritual drug use during Inca human sacrifices on Ampato mountain (Peru): Results of a toxicological analysis, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (co-authored with Socha D., et al.) (2022)
Inca human sacrifices from the Ampato and Pichu Pichu volcanoes, Peru: new results from a bio-anthropological analysis, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 13, (co-authored with Socha D., et al.) (2022)
Inca Human Sacrifices on Misti Volcano (Peru), Latin American Antiquity 32(1): 138-153. (co-authored with Socha D., et al.) (2022)

Inca Mummies on Andean Peaks. In The Modern Explorers, Hanbury-Tenison, R. and Twigger, R. (eds.), Thames & Hudson, London (2013)

Archaeological, radiological, and biological evidence offer insight into Inca child sacrifice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (co-authored with A. Wilson, et al.) (2013)

Sacred Featherwork of the Inca. In Peruvian Featherworks: Art of the Precolumbian Era, King, H. (ed.), the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (2012)

Las Montañas Sagradas y las Culturas Preincaicas de los Andes. In América: Tierras de Montañas y Volcanes. Huellas de la Arqueología. Chávez, M., Iwaniszewski, S., and Cabrera, R. (eds.), Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Historia (INAH), México, D.F. (2012)

Síntesis de Estudios Interdisciplinarios en las Momias Congeladas del Volcán Llullaillaco (co-authored with Constanza Ceruti, Previgliano, C., González J., & Arias F.). In XV Congreso Nacional de Arqueología Argentina, Austral, A. and Tamagnini, M. (eds.) (2009)

Inca Mummies: Child Sacrifice on Andean Peaks. In Discovery: Unearthing the New Treasures of Archaeology, Fagan, B. (ed.), Thames & Hudson, London (2007)

Stable isotope and DNA evidence for ritual sequences in Inca child sacrifice (co-authored with Andrew Wilson, et al.). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2007)

Cloud Diving. In They Lived to Tell the Tale: True Stories of Modern Adventure from the Legendary Explorers Club. Russell, J. (ed.), Lyons Press, New York (2007)

Sacred Mountains, Ceremonial Sites, and Human Sacrifice Among the Inca (co-authored with Constanza Ceruti). Archaeoastronomy (2005)

Rescue Archaeology of the Inca Mummy on Mount Quehuar, Argentina (co-authored with Constanza Ceruti). In Proceedings of the Fifth World Mummy Congress, Torino (2005).

A Compositional Analysis of Pottery Vessels Associated with the Inca Ritual of Capacocha (co-authored with Tamara Bray, Minc, L., Ceruti, C., Perea, R. & Chávez, J.A.). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology (2005)

Into the Hidden Crater—An Andean Adventure. Explorers Journal (2003)

Paleoradiologic Evaluation of the Llullaillaco Mummies (co-authored with Carlos Previgliano, et al.). American Journal of Roentgenology (2003)

A High Altitude Archaeological Survey in Northern Chile. Revista Chungara (2002)

Sacred Landscape: The Prehistoric Cultures of the Andes. In Extreme Landscape, MacDonald, B. (ed.), National Geographic Society (2002)

Coropuna: Templo y Montaña de los Incas. Revista del Centro de Investigaciones Arqueológicas de Alta Montaña (2001)

Frozen in Time. National Geographic 196 (5) (1999)

New Inca Mummies. National Geographic 194 (I) (1998)

The Temple of Blindness: An Investigation of the Inca Shrine of Ancocagua, Andean Past (1998)

Llullaillaco: Investigación del Yacimiento Arqueológico más Alto del Mundo, Anales de Arqueología y Etnología (1997)

Sharp Eyes of Science Probe the Mummies of Peru. National Geographic (1997)

Peru’s Ice Maidens. National Geographic (1996)

House of the Sun: The Inca Temple of Vilcanota. Latin American Antiquity (1995)

Llullaillaco: An Investigation of the World’s Highest Archaeological Site. Latin American Indian Languages Journal (1993)

Tiahuanaco, Centro Sagrado de los Andes, In Guía Cultural y Turística de Bolivia. Fundación Cultural, La Paz (1992)

Underwater Archaeological Research in Lake Titicaca, Bolivia. In Ancient America: Contributions to New World Archaeology, Saunders, N. (ed.), Oxbow Books, Oxford (1992)

An Archaeological Investigation of Inca Ceremonial Platforms on the Volcano Copiapo, Central Chile, In Ancient America: Contributions to New World Archaeology, Saunders, N. (ed.), Oxbow Books, Oxford (1992)

Sacred Peaks of the Andes. National Geographic (1992)

Interpreting the Nazca Lines. In The Ancient Americas: Art From Sacred Landscapes, Townsend, R. (ed.), The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago.

Investigación Arqueológica de las Plataformas Inca Ceremoniales en los Volcanes de Copiapo y Jotabeche (Región de Atacama). Revista Contribución Arqueológica (1991)

Tiwanaku: Ensayo sobre su cosmovisión. Revista Pumapunku (1991)

Tiahuanaco, Sacred Center of the Andes. In The Cultural Guide of Bolivia, McFarren, P. (ed.), Fundación Cultural Quipus, La Paz (1990)

Heights of Interest. South American Explorer (1990)

Informe sobre una sección del camino Inca y las ruinas en la cresta que baja del nevado de Tucarhuay. Revista Sacsahuaman (1990)

Mysteries of Lake Titicaca: Archaeology Beneath the Waves. In The Cultural Guide of Bolivia, McFarren, P. (ed.), Fundación Cultural Quipus, La Paz (1990)

The Nazca Lines, Water and Mountains: An Ethno-archaeological Study. In Recent Studies in Pre-Columbian Archaeology, N. Saunders and O. de Montmollin (eds.), British Archaeological Reports, Oxford

The Sacred Himalaya, American Alpine Journal (1987)

Chavín y Tiahuanaco: Una Nueva Perspectiva de Dos Centros Ceremoniales Andinos. Boletín de Lima (1987)

Chavin and Tiahuanaco: A New Look at Two Andean Ceremonial Centers. National Geographic Research (1985)

Sacred Mountains: An Etthno-Archaeological Study of High Andean Ruins. Mountain Research and Development (1985)

High-Altitude Archaeology and Andean Mountain Gods. American Alpine Journal (1983)

Las Montañas Sagradas: Un Estudio Etnoarqueológico de Ruinas en las Altas Cumbres Andinas. Cuadernos de Historia (1983)

Expedición Arqueológica al Volcán Licancabur (co-authored with Ana Maria Baron). Revista de Corporación para el Desarrollo de la Ciencia (1981)

The Chonos of the Chilean Archipelago. Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research (1981)

Ascensión al Volcán Licancabur y Otros Nevados (co-authored with George Serracino and Ana Maria Barón). Revista del Centro de Investigaciones Arqueológicos de Alta Montaña (1980)

Khembalung: The Hidden Valley. Kailash, A Journal of Himalayan Studies (1978)

Shamanism among the Raji of Southwest Nepal. In Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas, Hitchcock, J. & Jones, R. (eds.), Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi (1976)

Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem. In Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas, Hitchcock, J. & Jones, R. (eds.), Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi (1976)

The Ban Rajas: A Vanishing Tribe. Contributions to Nepalese Studies (1976)

The Raute: Notes on a Nomadic Hunting and Gathering Tribe of Nepal. Kailash, A Journal of Himalayan Studies (1974)

Underwater Archaeology in Austria: A Preliminary Report. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration (1974)

Preliminary Report on Wood Working in Nepal. Anzeiger der philosophische-historischen Klasse der Osterreichischen Akadamie der Wissenschaften (1969)

Preliminary Report on Pottery Making in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Anzeiger der philosophische-historischen Klasse der Osterreichischen Akadamie der Wissenschaften (1969)

Aperçu sur les Kusunda: peuple chasseur du Népal, Objets et Mondes (1969The Kusunda: Ethnographic Notes on a Hunting Tribe of Nepal. Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research (1968)